Nine studies assessed self-esteem as a primary outcome, with four studies [14, 32, 36, 46] finding a significant effect of having a guide, hearing, mobility, or medical service dog on self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale [RSES; 53]. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review was conducted across seven electronic databases. However, Guest et al. These studies were reviewed to complete three specific aims: to describe the key characteristics of studies, to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies, and to summarize outcomes. A study such as this not only helps us better understand how the brain works, but it also has enormous potential for developing treatments for people who have abnormal patterns of brain activity, such as those with epilepsy or Parkinsons disease. The rhesus monkey connectome predicts disrupted functional networks resulting from pharmacogenetic inactivation of the amygdala. The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 35 times with final follow-up ranging from 924 months after receiving an assistance dog. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [1315]. Psychology Research: Psychological Research on Animals Construct a Regional Innovation Ecosystem: A Case Study of the Beijing Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Three Blind Mice, See How They Run: A Critique of Behavioral Research Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. Of 27 studies, 15 were cross-sectional and 12 were longitudinal. All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). The main reason why they are inaccurate is because of the huge differences between humans and animals. If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. [15] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [17, 28] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35]. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. To be sure, each species has its own specializations that enable it to fit into its unique ecological niche; but common ancestry results in structural (e.g., brain) and functional (e.g., memory) processes that are remarkably similar between humans and nonhumans. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. Animal Studies of Attachment: Lorenz and Harlow | Psychology - tutor2u In the mobility domain, only Milan [41] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [44] and Rintala et al. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Of 27 studies, 20 (74%) assessed a psychological outcome with a total of 24 different standardized measures. Neuron. Studying other species often avoids some of the complex ethical problems involved in studying humans. Animal research continues to play a vital role in psychology, enabling discoveries of basic psychological and physiological processes that are important for living healthy lives. Advantages & Disadvantages | a2-level-level-revision, psychology Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. Animal studies in psychology - American Psychological Association Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). The Sad Truth About Pet Ownership and Depression - Psychology Today Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. [17] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. Animal Studies Of Attachment: Lorenz And Harlow - Psychology Hub As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. [32] reported no relationship between the mobility domain and having a service dog or hearing dog. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. 14 Pros and Cons of Animal Research - Vittana.org A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. Rintala et al. Most animals, once the testing process has been completed, are euthanized. An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. Finally, one of the most notable examples of poor methodological reporting across studies was the omission of information regarding assistance dogs sources (e.g. This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and - PLOS found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. But, was then later tested on a human and the human died. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. Advantages Useful Findings. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. Breakthroughs include the development of many antibiotics, insulin therapy for diabetes, modern anesthesia, vaccines for whooping cough and other diseases, the use of lithium in mental health treatments, and the discovery of . In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies. Summary of psychological outcomes across N = 27 studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Animal psychologists have been undergoing an identity crisis, with increasingly common criticisms of the traditional field revolving around the assumption that laboratory preparations alone will reveal laws of learning having generality. Lundqvist et al. To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). Methods matter: A primer on permanent and reversible interference Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [13]. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. Animal studies in psychology. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [19, 76]. Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. Summary of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by reporting section (. [17] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. Opinion: Why research using animals is important in psychology They argue that all life is sacred and animals go through a lot of distress during experiments in which they involuntarily take part. Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Lack of control: Another downside is that the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Table 3 summarizes psychological outcomes across studies in terms of general psychological health, emotional health, mental health, and self-evaluation. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. As the assistance dog itself is the key component of the intervention, details regarding the dogs breeding, rearing, selection, and training, as well as the assistance dog-handler matching process are critical to disentangling potential mechanisms [75]. John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. The studies carried out by Milgram, Piliavin, Haney and Gardner Yarmolkevich [46] found a significant effect of having a guide dog on positive affect using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience [SPANE; 49] compared to a control group, while others studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39] on affect via the Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS; 50]. After removing duplicate articles in EndNote following a validated protocol [23], articles were screened based on their title and abstract. Lorenz, animal studies of attachment: Lorenz's research investigates the Evolutionary Explanation of attachment suggesting that infants are pre-programmed to form an attachment from the second that they are born. Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [2]. However, because case studies are often based on a single individual or small group, they may not be representative of the larger population.
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